Ancient Israel's Faith and History: An Introduction to the Bible in Context

Rating:
Summary: Surprising antidote to Biblical misinterpretation
Review: Biblical minimalists won't like this book, because Mendenhall does not accept that absence of evidence means evidence of absence (because there is no archaeological evidence of the Exodus, for example, it did not happen); they may enjoy it, however, because they can spend their time picking it to pieces. Christian fundamentalists (and possibly Jewish ones also, though i know less about them) won't like it either, because Mendenhall does not accept that every word of the Bible is directly from God (the Exodus happened, with over a million people leaving Egypt); they may enjoy it, though, because they can send him rude letters about his failure to support Christianity.

On the other hand, however, those who are seeking Truth in life, those whose view of God is not immutable (though God may be), those who are interested in learning how God revealed himself in history, they will both enjoy and like this book.

Mendenhall passes through the history of ancient Israel from before the Exodus to the time of Jesus, and describes his view of that history as it relates to the religions and histories of the surrounding nations, and to the covenant with YHWH. Interestingly, he does not equate that covenant with Judaism. Rather, he calls the obsevance of the covenant "Yahwism" which he contrasts with "Yahwisticism" (the making of YHWH a "patron saint" or divine protector to be appeased by certain rituals) and the Judaism he shows as developing from the latter. The relationship between Yahwism and Yahwisticism is identical to the relationship between the personal knowledge of Jesus and Church attendance and singing hymns Sunday morning.

In Mendenhall's view, the designation "Hebrew" was not an ethnic tag, but an indication that the person so labelled was an outcast from society. The originl covenant-makers were 'Apiru (Hebrews) who had escaped from slavery in Egypt and agreed to live together in a certain fashion. The practice of the covenant they made entailed in them certain ethical behaviour (Yahwism), described in the original Ten Commandments -- which he calls the Ten Commitments.

Gradually, over time, the Hebrews became the society instead of the outcasts, and it became more acceptable over the land, in the towns as well as the 'Apiru villages and groupings, to join the covenant. As more and more people worshiped YHWH, though, the worship form became more important, the ethics less important, and YHWH and his requirements started to be indistinguishable from the gods of the surrounding peoples. In the same way, to relate this to something we may understand more intimately, Jesus, the Father, Mary, and Christian celebrations became much more like Apollo, Jupiter, Athene, and pagan festivals once Christianity became the legal religion of the Roman Empire. This formalised religion is what Mendenhall calls Yahwisticism. Quite clearly, as Mendenhall explains it, Yahwisiticsm developed as a response to (and adaptation of) the religions of the surrounding nations, in order to suit the political leaders' desire for power, which was the very opposite of the essence of Yahwism. The Hebrews misunderstood and re-interpreted their past, and started to view YHWH as another Baal ~ a local god of power, to be worshipped in specific ways and places. Yahwism thus lost in the battle with the Canaanite religions, though we usually view the Bible as the record of the Israelites's successful religion.

The prophets who are reported all through the Jewish scriptures were those who understood the nature of the original covenant, and called the people back to their original Yahwism. Mendenhall sees Jesus as one, perhaps the last, in that line of such prophets, and understands early Christianity to have been a return to the historical line of Yahwism, rather than a radical departure from everything revealed in the Old Testament. Thus, and this is the endpoint of the book, Christianity and Christians ought to be paying closer attention to the Old Testament and the covenant contained therein, as they are their root, origin, and history.

The book is well written; derived from talks he gave over a number of years, it still bears the marks of its origin in a simple, flowing style. Quite differently from many books of the genre i have read, the work is readily accessible to the person with little background knowledge. The fourteen-page glossary explains in detail many terms lay readers may find questionable; the bibliography points the reader in many directions to discover more information, should he so incline.

All in all, other than for the two groups mentioned above, an excellent read, and highly recommended.

Rating:
Summary: A Masterwork of Biblical History
Review: George E. Mendenhall has been described by eminent students of the Bible as one of the most creative American scholars of the ancient Near East in the twentieth century. Yet his fundamental work is largely unknown outside the guild of professional historians, philologists, and archaeologists. Now a comprehensive account of his reconstruction of the history of ancient Israel is available in a beautifully edited, attractively produced form. It can be understood and appreciated even by those who haven't mastered the technical tools of the professional scholar.

His pre-eminent interest, studied over a period of some six decades, has been the origins of ancient Israel. In Mendenhall's view, it is in Israel's origins that we find the essential clues to the interpretation of all subsequent Israelite history-including the appearance of Jesus of Nazareth and the early Christian Church some 1200 years after the time of Moses. A brief review such as this cannot hope to do justice to the enormous wealth of material in this superb book. I will attempt only a sketchy summary of each chapter.

Introduction

First he posits several illuminating general principles for understanding the phenomenon of religion, which are applied throughout the following chapters to Israel's particular historical phases.

Abraham to Moses

Then Mendenhall surveys the later part of the Bronze Age (2500-1200 B.C.) in the Eastern Mediterranean, covering the rise and fall of empires. He also characterizes (the main thrust of the chapter) the emergence, from at least 2000 B.C. onward, of numerous groups of "Apiru"--people who altogether disavowed political loyalties. He cites linguistic reasons for associating "Apiru" with "transgressor" or "outlaw." Apiru groups, lacking any legal protection, survived via banditry, mercenary militarism, or by converting agricultural assets to movable livestock and escaping to uninhabited regions inaccessible to political authorities. The less fortunate among them were prey to enslavement as state laborers--as were thousands of Apiru in Egypt.

Moses and the Exodus

Moses' leadership of the "exodus" of a few hundred Apiru from Egypt is tied in Biblical tradition (correctly, in Mendenhall's view) to two revolutionary religious innovations: monotheism in which the defining characteristic of God ("Yahweh") is ethical concern; and the use of a new form for the mediation of this Yahwism--the Covenant, derived by analogy from the forms and functions of international suzerainty treaties in use already for a millennium.

The Twelve-Tribe Federation

Mendenhall continues his historical reconstruction to the formation in two stages of the Twelve-Tribe federation of ancient Israel, created and sustained by the Mosaic Covenant, which put into practice the seemingly exotic notion of a state-less society.

David and the Transition to Monarchy

The federation functioned for about two centuries; pressure by Philistines accelerated the decline in morale and prompted desires for the institution of a political state capable of dealing more effectively with them. Samuel himself foresaw this move as the repudiation of Yahweh and the Covenant. Mendenhall illuminates the ingenious strategy then employed by David and the pagan bureaucrats inherited from the defeated Jerusalem to construct a synthesis of Yahwism and paganism, for which he adopts the term "Yahwisticism".

The Legacy of King Solomon

With King Solomon the "re-paganization of Israel" reached new heights. Mendenhall relates how Solomon's building program--involving the imposition of the corvée labor from which the Apiru slaves had escaped with Moses!--provided a new Phoenician Temple for the theologians and a swell Hittite palace for the king. "Yahweh," once the repudiator of coercion, had become merely the new "Baal," the Bronze Age hypostasis of state legitimacy and power. Mendenhall limns the intricate, unscrupulous struggles among Solomon's successors, and correlates the poetic oracles of Hosea and Amos to the ongoing upheavals of state, bringing into relief their invocation of the old covenantal elements.

Josiah Reforms the Imperial Religion

Mendenhall next turns to the fate of the kingdom of Judah and the biblical literature catalyzed by its history. He presents the historical preparation for Josiah and the latter's reforms. He also offers insights into the perverse consequences of the failure of Sennacherib's siege of Jerusalem during Hezekiah's reign (the unwarranted confidence that Yahweh's highest priority was the protection of Jerusalem and its Temple).

Destruction and Exile: The Creative Reform of Yahwism

The destruction of Jerusalem predicted by Jeremiah (and Ezekiel) was a catastrophe for Israel-as-Davidic-Dynasty and produced enormous suffering for countless hapless individuals. Meditations on it by some of the greatest religious geniuses of history are enshrined in various Biblical writings, especially Jeremiah and Ezekiel; Job (the book is worth having for this section alone); and "Second Isaiah." But the universalizing re-expression of Israel's covenant faith by these writers was just one response to the Exile. With the return of the exiles to Palestine under the Persian Cyrus, Ezra and Nehemiah wrote another new chapter in the evolution of Yahwism.

Jesus and the New Testament Reformation

Reading the New Testament in the light of the Old Testament makes it clear that Jesus' message hearkens back to the Covenant faith and the inspired re-expressions and adaptations of it by the great prophets. In a word, it was a creative reformation movement within the tradition of Israel's faith. Mendenhall throws a flood of light on "the Kingdom of God," "Messiah," "Law," and on "covenant" itself as it reappears in the Christian Eucharist.

Summary

This magnificent book by one of the towering figures in Biblical scholarship throws an arresting new light on the universal significance of the ancient ethical-religious vision of Moses and pre-monarchic Israel. It shows how, despite the ever-changing vicissitudes of Israel's history, this vision reappears, creatively readapted, in the prophetic legacy, in the Exile, in Jesus and the early Church. It is well worth having just for the fascinating word-studies to be found throughout the text. No one who takes its insights seriously can look at either the Bible or the surviving religious institutions in the same way. I believe it should be read and deeply pondered by all who are committed to the life of faith.

Rating:
Summary: Who dunnit?
Review: Prof. George Mendenhall has devoted a lifetime to understanding the old testament and what stands behind and under it. In this splendid work he summarises 60 years of work and study. His proposals are frequently controversial (10 commitments not commandments? Moses went up the mountain how many times? Jesus as a Jewish reformer?) but more often than not have come to represent mainstream thought about historical and theological issues raised by the current text of the Bible. His approach is forensic: looking deeply into physical, literary and reliligious history in a parallel manner so as to understand the context of what he reads. The work stands by itself as a wonderful introduction to 3000 years of history before the common era but can also be used as a study guide, since Dr. Mendenhall has been generous with recommending additional readings and sources.

I have been looking for a long time for a text which explains the origins of the the books of the old testament: Ancient Israel's Faith and History fills the bill extremely well, in an insightful and entertaining way. If you have a genuine interest in this subject, it is a must read.

Rating:
Summary: Pleasant but lightweight
Review: This book appears to be designed as a text book. Each chapter has a section which outlines further reading and the book is full of illustrations and diagrams.

The book deals with a difficult subject but is generally pleasant and non dogmatic. It is reasonably short and easy to read.

To put the book into context, some years ago it was thought that the bible was an accurate historic record of both Israel and the Jewish people. Modern archeology has created some big doubts about the historical accuracy of the bible.

For example the book which discusses Abraham mentions the use of camels. It would appear that in the relevant period camels had not been domesticated. An examination of Egyptian records shows no mention of the tribes of Israel as a captive source of labour at any time in its history. There is no mention of their escape and the destruction of an Egyptian Army in the Red Sea.

The bibilical account of the conquest of the holdy land by Joshua describes the siege of larged walled cities such as Jerico. An examination of the historical record shows that these cities to the extent that they existed were small and unfortified. Lastly it would seem that there is no real evidence that the Davidic Kingdom existed as descibed in the bible.

These findings have led to a number of schools of thought. One school suggests that the books of the bibal which purport to be a historical record are in fact things which were written centuries after the occurance as a means of providing a rallying call for the state of Judah. That the writtings were more of a form of propoganda to inspire the present than being a record of the past.

Mendenhall's book is an attempt to find a sort of middle way, which can reconcile parts of the biblical record with the historical record. He thus suggests that the basis events in the bible occured but they have been subsquently exagerated. Thus the exodus did occur but it would have been a smaller group. There would have been some form of Davidic Kingdom but it would have been smaller.

One interesting part of the book is the section on the ten commandments. Mendenhall argues convincingly that instead of being "laws"these were more commitments that would identify individuals as the members of the religous group.

In general terms a pleasant book, but one in which the basis of the writting is one of faith rather than hard evidence.

Rating:
Summary: Excellant overview of the topic.
Review: When I studied ancient near eastern history years ago, one of the more frustrating regions to gain insight into was the Levant. The area was rife with petty and ephemeral kingdoms contending for supremacy among their peers and for survival in the face of the imperialistic enterprises of the mightier rulers on their world scene. Rarely were these more than infrequently mentioned names. The notable exception was, not surprisingly, ancient Israel whose history, mythology, and culture are still known to most of us through the mechanism of the written work popularly known as The Old Testament. Though it contains information about many of the players in the political drama played out in the region over several thousand years, it is not an easy document to use. Dr. Mendenhall in his book Ancient Israel's Faith and History has done a superlative job of presenting the material in a very clear, organized, and informative manner.

One of the problems with studying the Bible as a historical document lies in the fact that it has such a diverse history of its own. The authors of various portions of it had their own motives, information sources, and world view, the redactors their own set, modern day interpreters theirs, etc. As Dr. Mendenhall writes in his preface, "Through the ages, whether through ignorance or malice, the Bible has frequently been misinterpreted, misunderstood, and misused (p. xvii)," and he notes that the "scribes were less interested in understanding their own history than they were in exploiting it (p. xviii)."

Nor are the motives of ancient scribes the only source of difficulties. Modern day scholarship has also lent it`s particular spin to Biblical interpretations. Again in Mendenhall`s words, "Modern biblical scholars--who should be in the best position to help our understanding--are themselves frequently hamstrung by the enormously broad range of requisite knowledge (including ancient history and languages) and by the inability or unwillingness to separate their scholarship from the presumptions and orthodoxies of their peer groups (xvii)."

Dr. Mendenhall does not seem to suffer from any such problem. According to the forward by Gary Herion, the gentleman has an extensive knowledge of ancient languages, a first hand knowledge of modern day local cultures in the Middle East, and a knowledge of the archaeology of the area. In reading the book, I would also add to this list, that I found very little to indicate a religious bias of his own to defend. He approaches the subject with the objectivity and organization of one who is fond of puzzels and their solution.

In writing his book, which bears clear signs of its origin in lecture notes, Dr. Mendenhall has methodically begun at the beginning. The introduction to Ancient Israel's Faith and History begins, not with the biblical narrative, but with a description of religion itself. He asks and answers five questions: What is one`s religion, what are religious communities, what does religion actually do, how are religious values transmitted, and how does a religious system change over time? He also enumerates and describes five key "observations" or "laws" about religion: The law of transference, the law of functional shift, the law of elaboration, the law of contrast, and the law of finality. And finally he sets out how religions develop: The prologue to the religion, the formative period, the adaptive period, the traditional period, and the reform period. Armed with this instructive information, the reader is able to follow the author's progress through the various books--and by them the history--of ancient Israel and its religion.

Of most interest to me was the formative period of Israel's post exilic years of which he provides a very cogent discussion. Anyone who has studied the Bible as history knows of the Habiru, of the Hyksos, of the Merneptah stele, and so on, but Dr. Mendenhall brings these early years into far greater perspective. Certainly his discussion of the Ten Commandments as ten commitments makes the history of the Exodus and its later effect on Israel's development and ultimate collapse as an ancient state clearer.

Of some significance is the pertinence of the work to modern day events in the Middle East. In his discussion of the meaning of some of the commandments in the historical context of their development, Mendenhall makes some very important points, especially with respect to values. When one realizes that what one values most and fears the loss of most is what is "worshipped" in one's culture, one can see why those with a stricter sense of "godliness" and commitment, like the members of the Taliban community or of Bin Ladin's followers, would find the western world's habit of valuing possessions to be godless behavior, and to some extent it is.

Of importance too, at least to me, is the gentleman's inclusion of a short bibliography at the end of each chapter which provides the reader with sources of further information. Although Dr. Mendenhall is himself now retired, the bibliographical entries vary widely in date. Included are works like Gurney's The Hittites, Samuel Noah Kramer's The Sumerians, and John Wilson's The Culture of Ancient Egypt, all dating to the 1960s. Later works like Sheler's Is the Bible True? (1999) and Frerichs and Lesko's Exodus: the Egyptian Evidence (1997), suggest that he has kept his overall knowledge base current. Journal articles, however, seem to be 1980 and earlier, which suggest that he may be falling behind in the venue of the professional literature.

Overall I found this a very readable, informative and interesting book. I would recommend it highly to anyone with an interest in the history of the ancient world, in Biblical history, or in the history of the bible itself. It would make a nice gift for a religious person who enjoys studying the bible and who is able to do so with an open mind. For those who are inclined to view the Bible and religion from a more rigid perspective, I suspect it would offend their sense of Divine Word.

Rating:
Summary: Excellant overview of the topic.
Review: When I studied ancient near eastern history years ago, one of the more frustrating regions to gain insight into was the Levant. The area was rife with petty and ephemeral kingdoms contending for supremacy among their peers and for survival in the face of the imperialistic enterprises of the mightier rulers on their world scene. Rarely were these more than infrequently mentioned names. The notable exception was, not surprisingly, ancient Israel whose history, mythology, and culture are still known to most of us through the mechanism of the written work popularly known as The Old Testament. Though it contains information about many of the players in the political drama played out in the region over several thousand years, it is not an easy document to use. Dr. Mendenhall in his book Ancient Israel's Faith and History has done a superlative job of presenting the material in a very clear, organized, and informative manner.

One of the problems with studying the Bible as a historical document lies in the fact that it has such a diverse history of its own. The authors of various portions of it had their own motives, information sources, and world view, the redactors their own set, modern day interpreters theirs, etc. As Dr. Mendenhall writes in his preface, "Through the ages, whether through ignorance or malice, the Bible has frequently been misinterpreted, misunderstood, and misused (p. xvii)," and he notes that the "scribes were less interested in understanding their own history than they were in exploiting it (p. xviii)."

Nor are the motives of ancient scribes the only source of difficulties. Modern day scholarship has also lent it's particular spin to Biblical interpretations. Again in Mendenhall's words, "Modern biblical scholars--who should be in the best position to help our understanding--are themselves frequently hamstrung by the enormously broad range of requisite knowledge (including ancient history and languages) and by the inability or unwillingness to separate their scholarship from the presumptions and orthodoxies of their peer groups (xvii)."

Dr. Mendenhall does not seem to suffer from any such problem. According to the forward by Gary Herion, the gentleman has an extensive knowledge of ancient languages, a first hand knowledge of modern day local cultures in the Middle East, and a knowledge of the archaeology of the area. In reading the book, I would also add to this list, that I found very little to indicate a religious bias of his own to defend. He approaches the subject with the objectivity and organization of one who is fond of puzzels and their solution.

In writing his book, which bears clear signs of its origin in lecture notes, Dr. Mendenhall has methodically begun at the beginning. The introduction to Ancient Israel's Faith and History begins, not with the biblical narrative, but with a description of religion itself. He asks and answers five questions: What is one's religion, what are religious communities, what does religion actually do, how are religious values transmitted, and how does a religious system change over time? He also enumerates and describes five key "observations" or "laws" about religion: The law of transference, the law of functional shift, the law of elaboration, the law of contrast, and the law of finality. And finally he sets out how religions develop: The prologue to the religion, the formative period, the adaptive period, the traditional period, and the reform period. Armed with this instructive information, the reader is able to follow the author's progress through the various books--and by them the history--of ancient Israel and its religion.

Of most interest to me was the formative period of Israel's post exilic years of which he provides a very cogent discussion. Anyone who has studied the Bible as history knows of the Habiru, of the Hyksos, of the Merneptah stele, and so on, but Dr. Mendenhall brings these early years into far greater perspective. Certainly his discussion of the Ten Commandments as ten commitments makes the history of the Exodus and its later effect on Israel's development and ultimate collapse as an ancient state clearer.

Of some significance is the pertinence of the work to modern day events in the Middle East. In his discussion of the meaning of some of the commandments in the historical context of their development, Mendenhall makes some very important points, especially with respect to values. When one realizes that what one values most and fears the loss of most is what is "worshipped" in one's culture, one can see why those with a stricter sense of "godliness" and commitment, like the members of the Taliban community or of Bin Ladin's followers, would find the western world's habit of valuing possessions to be godless behavior, and to some extent it is.

Of importance too, at least to me, is the gentleman's inclusion of a short bibliography at the end of each chapter which provides the reader with sources of further information. Although Dr. Mendenhall is himself now retired, the bibliographical entries vary widely in date. Included are works like Gurney's The Hittites, Samuel Noah Kramer's The Sumerians, and John Wilson's The Culture of Ancient Egypt, all dating to the 1960s. Later works like Sheler's Is the Bible True? (1999) and Frerichs and Lesko's Exodus: the Egyptian Evidence (1997), suggest that he has kept his overall knowledge base current. Journal articles, however, seem to be 1980 and earlier, which suggest that he may be falling behind in the venue of the professional literature.

Overall I found this a very readable, informative and interesting book. I would recommend it highly to anyone with an interest in the history of the ancient world, in Biblical history, or in the history of the bible itself. It would make a nice gift for a religious person who enjoys studying the bible and who is able to do so with an open mind. For those who are inclined to view the Bible and religion from a more rigid perspective, I suspect it would offend their sense of Divine Word.

Rating:
Summary: An Unbiased look at Biblical Archeology.
Review: Written mainly from a Near Eastern context and an archeological perspective, this is one of the few texts that are written about the historical elements of the Bible that does not attempt to fictionalize the stories within. Although, the author clearly does not take each piece of scripture literally this book should not offend anyone but the most stubborn. So if your convictions are rigid, you will not like this book. However, if you are open to other perspectives outside the Christian dogma, you will find this text educational and not offensive.

The three main points that lead me to recommend this book are; 1. The author's exposition of the Ten Commandments which will surprize most Christians but not Hebrews. He mainly confirms the reason why Hebrews refer to them as the "Ten Utterances," or as the author prefers, the "Ten Commitments." He does so with a comparison to the ancient treaty construction which I found refreshing. 2. His basic outline of how and in what order religion evolves. What I appreciated most concerning this was his treatment of Christ as a reformer and not some revolutionary with some brand new religion as he is mainly portrayed by most even within the Church. All of which, fall right into line with those Christians that understand their Hebraic roots. 3. The diversity of those involved with the Exodus and the subsequent nature of the kingdom. All of these points are widely misunderstood among Christianity.

Unfortunately, although not necessarily uncalled for, the author provides ample evidence of Israel's idolatry. I'm not quite sure why this isn't common knowledge and I'm not sure why this idolatry necessarily negates a principle faith in God, but it does in some people's minds and therefore this exposition is probably necessary.

The only real disagreement I had with the author is the assumption that the Bible teaches a massive invasion and subsequent wipeout of the indigenous people of the land. For instance the Bible makes it clear that God would allow the Hebrews to conquer the land gradually as shown in Exodus 23:29-30. Although the author prevents evidence to support these verses, his assumption is that the few instances of Joshua's utter annihilation were the norm, or at least perceived to be the norm. If his assumption is the former, I strongly disagree, if the later I can appreciate the manner in which his case was made.

Overall, this is a well written text written in a non-combative style that is a nice change from most of the other archeological texts concerning the Bible.