How the Bible Became a Book : Textualization in Ancient Israel

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Summary: interesting views
Review:
The Bible is one of the most studied and controversial writings of all times. For centuries it has been the backbone to countless cultures and the guiding light to an otherwise blinded faith. It is full of historical facts, theories, and stories, bound together in an intricately profound way in order to present the literate world with the stories of ancient Israel and early Judaism. The following review is based off of William M. Schniedewind's How the Bible Became a Book. This book gives an in depth insight as to how the Bible became a book, for not only biblical scholars, but for the general public as well. This book discusses the recent archeological discoveries and how they relate to the stories of ancient Israel. Schniedewind leaves his readers with a whole new perspective on the Bible and its historical context. In the following review I will be analyzing every chapter and breaking down the complex issues that this book discusses. These issues can best be described in the following three questions: 1.) who wrote the Bible? 2.) how is it that the bible was written at all?, and 3.) what were the particular historical circumstances under which the Bible became a text and then scripture.
Who wrote the Bible? I am sure that this question has at one time been asked by the majority of the human race. The problem is that there is no "author," but rather it is a collection of ancient scrolls compiled together by scribes. The Bible was not just written, but came to be through an intensive replacement of the oral traditions and stories of ancient Israelite society to scribes, then to the ancient scrolls. In fact the English word for bible is derived from the Greek word biblia which can be translated as "books" or "scrolls." Schniedewind makes a major point when analyzing this question in that he expresses how the importance is not who wrote the text, but mainly when the text was written. When studying an ancient text like that of the Bible, one needs to have a feel for the time period in which it was written from. In other words, as time goes by, societies from different time periods have different understandings and interpretations of any chosen text that they might be studying. An analogy used in the Bible will be viewed differently by today's readers than by someone who read it five hundred years ago. This is why Schiedewind claims that biblical meaning has reflected its readers more than its writers.
The question of who wrote the Bible was never really an issue until the fourth century B.C.E., after the rise of the Greek civilization. Before then, there were no "authors," this is because authorship comes from a written culture, and before the rise of the Greek civilization, all stories and traditions were passed on from generation to generation by word of mouth. The authority, or certainty of these stories came from the community that passed it on, not the author that wrote it. It was in the Age of Hellenism that language, culture, and values were all tied into the concept of authorship. People viewed the validity of the text through association of the author. Naturally this is when the Jewish tradition felt an urge to find the authors for its literature, a literature that so many where blindly placing their faith in. One of the problems that they were faced with was that the Bible was written by not one man, but by scribes, and the definition of a scribe in the Hebrew language would be defined as a transmitter of tradition, not an author. Another problem is the bizarre issue that the Bible almost avoids who wrote it. Biblical literature is rather shady in that area, in that most of the books within its covers leave the reader guessing as to the true authorship. Though many believe that the bible was written by the prophets, the truth is that the prophets were supposedly commanded to speak the words of God, not write them. All of this to say that knowing exactly who wrote the Bible would be nice, but that wouldn't help us to understand it any more. Our questions of the text would be more clearly answered not by knowing who wrote the text, but when it was written.
When it comes to discussing when and how the text was written we need to understand that Schniedewind is going against the new fashionable trends of scholars who have come to believe that the biblical texts where not written until late into the Hellenistic and Persian periods(somewhere in between the fourth and second centuries B.C.E.). These writings all came to be with the help of the following factors; the urbanization of Jerusalem, a growing government bureaucracy, the development of a complex global economy, and finally the spread of literacy. Schiedewind claims that the Bible was written down in the eighth through sixth century B.C.E. To be more accurate he believes that it was during this time period that the ancient scrolls were analyzed and put into the literature form of one book, but How the Bible Became a Book does not focus on this particular time period, but rather on the time period in which the scrolls themselves were written. The majority of the Bible was written from the time of Isaiah the prophet(the late eighth century B.C.E) until the time of the prophet Jeremiah( early sixth century B.C.E.), but it is believed that the beginning literature of the Bible was written back in the days of king David and king Solomon (in the tenth century B.C.E.). Though it seems a little sketchy that there is so much entrusted in a book that was composed over such a long period of time, that aspect alone adds to the complexity and richness of it all, and brings out a strong desire to discover its true authorship. The Bible does an amazing job of supporting itself despite its huge gap of time in which it was written. Though there are many groups of people that have been trying to condemn the Bible and its authenticity, the truth is that the Bible might be one of the most amazingly written pieces of literature of all time. There have been countless discoveries that have supported that of what was found in the biblical texts. The Dead Sea Scrolls (the earliest existing biblical manuscripts) are perfect examples, they have given archeologists and historical scholars insight into how early some biblical transcripts actually are (third century B.C.E.), while giving more credibility to the authenticity of the Bible.
The Bible has gone through a series of different forms to become the complete "book" that we know today. The Bible has traveled down a long, rich and complex road, working its way from oral ideology to a written tradition. Initially writing was viewed as a very new and almost god-like art to the early societies. Schniedewind focuses on the uncommonness of writing and the types of ritual actions that where done in hopes of affecting the course of present or future events. Writing was considered to be a gift from the gods. There where a lot of superstitious beliefs tied into the written word, when it was first introduced into society. Today in Western cultures we consider literacy as a given, but what we don't realize is the long and varied history that has come along with the written word. The thing is that the value of literacy is considered more authoritative, or more important because unlike speech, the value of literacy is something we teach. The power of writing expands far beyond just literacy. Because of the idea that writing was some holy and divine power, it makes sense why some considered textualization to be the authority, and not orality. Schniedewind describes the power and use of writing in ancient Israel as, "...a display of state power and a tool of state administration. Second, writing was a gift of the gods...Writing was also [in theory] something done in heaven..." People also believed writing had supernatural powers and that curses could be brought upon a specific individual or city by simply writing it down and performing a ritual.
The early writings were controlled by the kings and priests, it is believed that not even one percent of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia were literate. That left over ninety-nine percent of a non-literate society that was left to believe that that writing was the domain of the divine. It was not until around the seventh century B.C.E. that ancient Israel became a literate nation. Before then the writings in ancient Israel played a restricted role within the confinements of the palace and temple. The ancient Israelites and Mesopotamians even went so far as to make gods and goddesses for the written word. Nabu and Nisaba were a couple of the gods believed to play major roles in the art of writing. The ancient world believed that words held within them the power to spring forth life, or by just changing a person's name, you could change who they were. An example of this would be Jacob, who's name meant "deceiver" and ironically enough was a deceitful child, but after a brief interlude with an angel his name was changed to "Israel" which meant to "strive" or "fight" and the folk tale says, he lived up to his new name. These strong beliefs that came along with writing were first brought about with God and the stone tablets that were "written on" by the finger of God atop of Mount Sinai. After this occurrence the tablets are placed inside the Ark of the Covenant, which automatically becomes this dangerous and magical thing. These tablets along with all the stories tied into the Book of Life leaves us with a solid understanding of why the ancient world believed writing to be a very off limits, religious, and powerful art. Even today synagogues place the Torah scroll in an "ark" in memory of the powerful images described in Exodus, and the Bible is placed on a pedestal and read from an elevated pulpit. They are revered these as the written words of God.
While the masses in ancient Israel could not read or write, many of those who lived in the palaces and temples could. This is why Schniedewind argues that, "...one of the most central moments in the history of the written work occurred in ancient Israel when the written work spread from the narrow confines of palace or temple scribes to the broader society." This transition Schniedewind discusses is also referred to as the textualization of ancient Israel. Biblical literature describes the Israelites as being an oral society where known as semi-nomadic wanderers who finally settled in Canaan in the thirteenth century all throughout the eastern Mediterranean. The problem that we face in history when studying the culture and beliefs of the Israelites is simple, outside of the Bible there is simply no record or mention of "Israelites" until the late thirteenth century B.C.E. Of the limited archeological evidence that we do have, all we know is that the early Israelites emerged out of a society that was mostly pastoral and agrarian. These archeological discoveries support that of which is found within the Bible. The earliest forms of biblical literature is in the form of song, like in Exodus 15 when he here the song of Moses also known as The Song of the Sea. These forms of literature were quickly transformed into the written word. Though at this time the complexity of writing systems restricted Mesopotamia's and Egypt's access to writing, this was not so in early Israel. Archeologists have found evidence of a literate culture. The small Israelite villages even showed evidence of scribal schools and writings. Even though the ancient Israelite society was slowly becoming literate, there were still scribes that worked for the early Israelite monarch. These scribes were used mainly for record keeping in hopes of preserving through documents the phases of and events of that culture.
The language of the Bible indicates that the culture at the time was an urban culture, which would place the interpretation and the writing of the Hebrew Bible from the scrolls to Jerusalem. Hezekiah sought to gather the wisdom, traditions, and poetry of the kings David and Solomon. Even though Hezekiah's intentions were good, he did not ending up fulfilling most of his goals. One of the main reasons that his goals were not reached was that there was little foreign influence or trade in Judah until the eighth century, and even though Hezekiah made an effort to restore Israel's idealized golden age, partially by collecting the literary traditions of Israel, there was just not enough variety of culture to make it available.
During the reign of Josiah, and beginning in the burgeoning government bureaucracy, the art of writing spread through society. The form of writing was now being used not only by the professionals in royal courts, but by the general public as well. This was a huge steps from the time period before, the days of Hezekiah for instance, when writing was confined to that of scribes or the court. Schniedewind talks about the controvercy between the beliefs of Cambridge University social anthropologist. As literacy and literature emerge in Israel, a textual revolution occurs. This occurrence happens during the time period, the late seventh century B.C.E.. Schniedewind remarks that, "This was one of the most profound cultural revolutions in human history: the assertion of the orthodoxy of texts." No longer were all texts written by the palace or priest, but by soldiers and people of trade. Once Josiah was chosen ruler over Israel, he set new reforms that focused on cultural influence. With the new found expression of the people, especially the rural elders, they began to write text that would create written tension between those urban and those rural. Schneildewind writes "Power had apparently shifted from the urban elites with ties to the northern Israel back to the rural tribal leaders." Though this phase in time seemed to be forever, it was drawing to a close as the end of independent literacy neared.
After the time of Josiah there was a "dark age" for biblical literature. This dark age was during the Persian period. I t was at this time that the once great city of Jerusalem had come to ruins, and all that was keft of the beautiful city and its temple were ruins. At this same time the Hebrew language was slowly being replaced the Aramaic language. The only hope that was had during the Persian period laid with the few faithful priests of Jerusalem who had once worked in the rebuilt temple. These priest did their job in preserving the the biblical literature of those days, which most likely would have otherwise been forgotten or lost in the holes of history.
After the Persian period came a time of relative prosperity and the flourish of Jewish literature. This was during the third century B.C.E., and during the reign of an Egyptian Hellenistic ruler. Though the times were prosperous for Israel, the construction of more biblical literature was basically over. It was during this time that the rebuilding of Jerusalem took place. There was a cent of peace of prosperity that gave hope to once lost city. It was during this time that there was a lot of studying and teaching of the scriptures, and they were slowly being transformed into Greek. Thanks to this much needed re-boost in history, all that was left was copying, translating, and the dispersing of the sacred text.
I found this book to have some very interesting facts and opinions on views of how the Bile actually became a book. I liked Schniedewinds personal opinions and looked at them the same way I would any other educated writers works. I feel that he did an over all impressive job of being very descriptive and using a lot of hard evidence to back up his ideas. Even though he was pretty convincing in his overall presentation, if I get time I would definitely like to read other books on the same topic, by other authors who have opposing views., but overall he painted a beautiful picture of the history and cultures that went into making the most famous and intriguing books of all time.












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Summary: The textualization of Ancient Israel: A Critique
Review: In Dr. Schniedewind's Book, How the Bible became a book, the transition of the Hebrew bible from orality to textualization is investigated and redefined.
In Chapter one, Dr. Schniedewind starts out by asking many intriguing questions. When was it that the bible was written and why was it really written? He explores the idea of authorship and the interesting view that the bible itself does not show an interest in its own authorship.
One of the topics Dr. Schniedewind addresses is that of "The Problem of Who Wrote the Bible" (Schniedewind 3). Our American society is forever bound within the constraints of individualism. Therefore we ask the question of who wrote the bible without realizing that the "the Bible itself is actually a collection of books or scrolls" written in a society where "...the group takes precedence over the individual"(Schniedewind, 5-6).
Moving on from the question of who wrote the bible, he writes about the authority of the author. He ascertains that the concept of authorship that is derived by a written culture. Interestingly, in contrast the bible itself does not show an interest in its authorship.
Another topic of the book will address why the Bible was written down in the first place. Ancient Israel was mainly an oral culture while widespread literacy is understood as a modern phenomenon.
In addition to who wrote the Bible, and how it became to be written, Dr. Schniedewind addresses the question of when exactly the Bible was written. He argues that the Bible was primarily written down in the eighth through the sixth century B.C.E, between the days of the prophets Isaiah and Jeremiah. Two Kings that helped the flourishing of Biblical literature were Kings Hezekiah and Josiah.

Chapter 2 addresses the numinous nature of writing. In Pre-Literate societies writing was seen as having magical powers. The letters of the Hebrew alphabet and the art of writing were understood to have been created on the sixth day according to one Jewish tradition. Writing was viewed as divine by non-literate societies. Another example of the numinous nature of writing is Egyptian Execration texts. These "were curses directed at people or cities", brought to life by the act of breaking a pot or doll bearing the name of the cursed" (Schniedewind 27).
Writing was also seen as a gift from God as evidenced by the giving of the two stone tablets to Moses on Mount Sinai. The tablets were believed to be written by the finger of God.
Chapter three investigates the origin and spread of writing as it was induced by the development of complex societies and governments. According to scholars writing is understood to have first been created by Mesopotamia in response to administrative and economic needs. The development of writing allowed for the propagation of a "sophisticated, urban economy". Mesopotamian scribes used incised ciphers and pictograms in soft clay tablets to keep track of economic transactions. However, the use of this writing was limited and known only by the trained scribal class.
In addition, writing was also used to display royal state power. The Code of Hammurabi is a good example of state power and one of the first legal codes in human history.
From here the author moves on to the role of writing in early Israel in chapter four. It is known that Early Israel was an oral society, primarily following a pastoral lifestyle that later transitioned into a more agrarian lifestyle. The orality of this culture is very evident when considering that the Hebrew language originally did not contain a word meaning "to read". Hence the Israelite culture was passed on orally through songs and stories.
It is finally in chapter 5 and the end of the eighth century B.C.E. that the bible as written literature began to take shape according to Dr. Schniedewind. Judean society was being transformed and urbanized in the last decades of the eighth century as evidenced by the emergence of Jerusalem as a powerful political center. Along with these changes came the institution of writing within the fabric of Judean society. Also, King Hezekiah also through his desire to re-create the legendary kingdom of David and Solomon induced the desire to write down the oral traditions of Israel.
Chapter six addresses the days of King Josiah and the further formation of the bible. By this time literacy was prevalent in Judean society. It was no longer only the scribes who possessed the knowledge of writing but also the soldiers, and craftsmen, and various other members of the society. This change in literacy was induced by the many reforms brought about by King Josiah. Many of these reforms were aimed at purging Judah of the corrupting influences of the northern kingdom and establishing the authority of the written text.
Chapter seven takes a step back and discusses the formation of the Torah as a text. He ascertains that the torah is an example "of the textualization of ancient Israelite religion" (Schniedewind, 118). The Book of Exodus provides an example of the bible's disinterest in its authorship. Then conversely the Book of Deuteronomy emphasizes the importance of text in its telling of the revelation on Mount Horeb. Dr. Schniedewind accounts for these differences by describing them as the "historical process of the textualization of Israelite culture and religion" (Schniedewind, 118).
It is in Chapter eight that Schniedewind introduces the exilic period and its affect on the flourishing of biblical literature. The coming of the Babylonian armies brought about the destruction of Jerusalem, the ruined economy of Judah, and caused the eventual decimation of Judah itself. As a result, Schniedewind argues that the exilic period was not an active period of writing of biblical literature. It was in this time that the writing and preservation of biblical literature returned to the hands of the royal family. The process of textualization that had been initiated was now hindered and almost stopped due to the Babylonian conquest and the upcoming Persian rule.
Chapter nine is dedicated to the Persian Period and the extent of biblical scholarship in this era. Schniedewind specifically goes against the theory that most of biblical literature was composed during the Persian Period. He instead asserts that the Persian period was a "dark age for biblical literature" (Schniedewind, 193). He argues that during this period Jerusalem was mostly depopulated and the Hebrew language was in decline. Instead the Aramaic language was being being used. Therefore instead of being the period where biblical literature was composed, he argues it was mainly a time of preservation. For example, a prologue and conclusion was added to the story of Job. Also, the priests organized the Psalms into a five-part book similar in structure to the Pentateuch. It is by the end of the late Second Temple period that priests now rejected oral tradition in favor of the written scripture.
Schniedewind now comes to the epilogue in his story by chapter ten. In the Hellenistic period Jewish literature again began to flourish. With the growth of the city, came prosperity, but the Bible was no longer being written. By this time students at Jewish schools in Jerusalem were studying the scriptures. In the mid-third century, scripture was being translated into Greek. Interestingly enough, with the huge emphasis on learning and the sacred text, neither Rabbinic Judaism nor Christianity would find its roots among the social elites or priests. Instead, these two movements would come about from the classes of the unlearned and unschooled. In contrast to the Jewish Priests that asserted the authority of the text, these two movements would once again bring back the importance of orality in the form of the teacher.



Themes:

Transition from orality to literacy: The evolution of sacred text
One of the prevalent themes that are woven through Dr. Schniedewind's arguments regarding the evolution of the Hebrew Bible is the transition from orality to literacy within the Israelite culture. As he describes in chapter four, "Early Israel was an oral society" initially composed of mainly pastoral then agrarian members. This concept is especially obvious when considering that ancient Hebrew did not initially contain a word meaning "to read" (Schniedewind, 48). It will not be till the 7th century that widespread literacy will develop in Israel. However according to Schniedewind, writing was not completely obsolete in ancient Israel. Although the vast majority of people were non-literate there were scribes in many of the large Canaanite cities during the second millennium B.C.E. (Schniedewind, 49). Hence early biblical literature derives its roots from the oral stories and songs passed down from generation to generation. Some of the earliest biblical literature we have is based on these such passed down "songs". For example in Exodus 15 it is called "the Song of Moses". To date it is still recited daily in the synagogue morning service (Schniedewind, 53). So as Schniedewind writes, " early traditions of Israel were memorialized in song" in the same fashion that the Greeks preserved their Homeric Epic (Schniedewind, 53). However, initially the role of writing was mainly based on administrative needs and therefore Schniedewind writes that there was no plausible reason for the writing down of these oral, historical stories.
In chapter four, Schniedewind also ascertains that "the songs of Israel changed little over the centuries" as prescribed by their format (Schniedewind, 55). Hence lending support to the theory that the bible was written down in later time periods and not in the time of Moses.


It is not until the late eighth century B.C.E. that the role of writing changes from the simple upkeep of administration to widespread literacy. In the days of Hezekiah there were many events that induced the propagation of literacy. Due the rise of the Assyrian Empire, the exile of the Northern Empire, and the urbanization of the south, literary activity increased. Hence as the population of Jerusalem grew, so did the role of writing. Literacy passed out of the temples and became adopted by the masses.

Transition from oral authority to written authority, effect on the teacher and society.
As the Israelite society moved along the continuum between orality and literacy, the foundation of authority within their culture dramatically changed. As Schniedewind writes, " While orality and literacy may exist on a continuum, orality and textuality compete with each other as different modes of authority" (Schniedewind, 13). Hence, as while Israel was mainly an oral society, religious authority lied mainly with the teachers in the society. As the culture moved towards literacy, and with the development of religious texts, the center of religious authority switched places and primarily was found within the textuality of the Hebrew Bible. However this switch in authority did not occur rapidly or without creating divisions within the Israelite social framework. For example, rabbinic tradition today originates from their emphasis on the oral Torah as opposed to other groups such as the Qumran sectarians that refer to those who favor the oral Torah as "those who move the boundaries" (Schniedewind, 15). Therefore to this day, the division caused by orality vs. textuality remains prevalent.


Why and when was the bible in fact written?
It is the question of why the bible was written that Dr. Schniedewind finds important as opposed to the question of who wrote the bible. This perspective prescribes the mode in which Schniedewind approaches his writing. His book explores the events that lead to the writing down of the bible and not the evidence of who wrote the bible. As stated earlier, before the seventh century there was no reason for the scribes of Israel to occupy themselves with anything other than administrative duties. At that point most of Israel was non-literate and had no need of a written bible. Therefore it is logical that there would be no need to write down biblical themes and oral literature till there was an audience that would be able to read it. The necessary spread of literacy needed to warrant the textualization of the Hebrew Bible was first made possible by the invention of the alphabet (Schniedewind, 17). It seems very probable that as literacy increased and was made more accessible through the invention of the alphabet, so did the need for written texts. The necessary transformation of society and time period occurred during the 8th to 6th century according to Schniedewind. In addition to this spread of literacy, Hezekiah's reign and emphasis on "re-creating" the Davidic golden age definitely seemed to increase Israel's want to secure their cultural past through the writing down of their oral traditions. Hezekiah's projects involved the writing down of history and prophetic traditions including Isaiah, Amos, and Hosea (Schniedewind, 76). Its seems highly plausible that with the pressure of
Hezekiah's literary initiatives and readiness of the people, Israel's theology began to be written down.
The second time period in which a large amount of Biblical literature is hypothesized to be written down was during Josiah's reign. It was during this time that there was a large emphasis on the orthodoxy of texts and as a result leads to the hypothesis that a large part of Deuteronomy was therefore composed in this time period. It is following the discovery of the "scroll of the law in the house of YHWH", that Josiah initiates reforms that will eliminate the corrupting influences of the northern kingdom. According to Schniedewind, "the biblical book that forms the blueprint for the Josianic reforms is the Book of Deuteronomy" (Schniedewind, 109). Hence, it is logical to place the writing of Deuteronomy during the Josianic Reforms.
Schniedewind's hypothesis regarding the time period in which the Pentateuch was written defies the stand of some biblical scholars. Some biblical scholars claim that, "the biblical texts were not composed until late into the Persian and Hellenistic Periods" (Schniedewind, 18). Instead, Schniedewind argues that the Babylonian period was not an active period of biblical writing and that the Persian period was a time of biblical editing and preservation. Schniedewind's proposed time line for the writing down of the bible seems to fit in well with the historical and social development of Israel. The likelihood that that the Pentateuch was written or composed (as some scholars would say) in the Persian and Hellenistic periods is low due to the type of Hebrew that is found within the texts. The Hebrew used in most of the Pentateuch is Classical Hebrew, thereby decreasing the probability that this text was composed in these late periods. Especially since it is argued that Aramaic and not Hebrew was the main language used during the Persian period.
Finally, more support for Schniedewind's theory can be found in the attitude towards writing found within the five books of the Torah itself. In Deuteronomy, the writing is very conscious of its own textuality. This is evidenced by the fact that in Deuteronomy the revelation on Mt. Horeb was written down. This emphasis is not found in the Exodus version of the revelation (Schniedewind, 108-109). It seems obvious that the first four books do not revel in their own textuality when Deuteronomy does. This supports the idea that Deuteronomy was written in an age where textuality was important, in other words, under the reign of Josiah. The other books were written in order to preserve the oral tradition of the Israelite culture.



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Summary: A new way to look at the Bible
Review: Before reading How the Bible Became a Book I had never read anything about the history of the Bible, but after reading this book I know much more about the history of the Old Testament. How the Bible Became a Book puts centuries of research into a couple hundred pages. The author does a very good job of making it possible for others to know what he is saying while it still could be read on a scholar level. Schniedewind states that the Bible was written much later than what most researchers are saying. He said the Bible was compiled and written earlier than the previously thought third century B.C.E.. Based upon some recent findings and some of his own Biblical research, he states the Bible was written in or around the sixth century B.C.E.. Schniedewind largely bases this on that fact that nothing could have been compiled during the Dark Ages of biblical times and that the Hebrew culture was mainly an oracle society. This is a good book if you want to gain knowledge about the biblical history of the Bible. The evidence that the author offers is put together in a way that anyone can understand because of how he uses is evidence to prove his thesis. I truly enjoyed this reading because it was an in intriguing read that made me think on my own upon reading it.

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Summary: Book Review
Review: "How the Bible Became a Book" by: William M. Schniedewind

The book "How the Bible became a Book" explains the history of the Bible. The book discusses the topics of who wrote the Bible, how the Bible was written, when the Bible was written and the complexity of Biblical literature. Schniedewind brings up many topics at the beginning of his book that he describes throughout the following chapters. This book is very helpful for discovering the truths about when the Bible was written and who wrote it. This book shows many people that what they have come to believe their entire life in Sunday School and in church is actually more complicated than they ever would have thought. This book shows that the main characters in the Bible didn't actually write their stories but that scribes did thousands of years later. All of these points lead to Schniedewind's thesis statement.
Schniedewind thesis is statement is the three questions that he poses in the first chapter. The first question that Schniedewind ask about the Bible becoming a book is "Who wrote the Bible?" Schniedewind asks this question now but throughout the entire book he goes through and shows who might have written or who might have been responsible for the writing of the Bible. Schniedewind says that the main people responsible for writing the actual text of the Bible are scribes. Scribes were a very important role in the ancient world. Without a scribe kings would have no power since writing was considered to be one of the most important tools and inventions ever created. Schniedewind says "Very rarely does the Bible itself ever point to the authors, although it often attributes traditional biblical characters." (Schniedewind 10) This is saying that the actual authors of the Bible were never the heroes or the main characters in the stories. The main reason first of all is that when the majority of the stories happened in the Old Testament no alphabet had been invented yet so therefore it would have been hard to write a story. "Ancient Israel was primarily an oral culture." (Schniedewind 11) This means that the stories were kept alive by word of mouth and not by writing them down. The stories were told for hundreds of years before they actually got written down and before they were put into the Bible. Therefore, the scribes heard the stories from word of mouth and finally decided to write them or the scribes could have been instructed to by their king. For example Hezekiah had scribes who wrote a lot about King David and his history. When Josiah became king writing was had spread throughout the government bureaucracy and the economy. This also helped the Bible become a book faster than if just scribes were writing all of it. There are many people who actually wrote the Bible, not just one person wrote all of the stories. Without the invention of the alphabet, the scribes, and the education of people the Bible may have never been an actual book.






The next question is "When was the Bible written?" This part of Schniedewind's thesis is also explained throughout the rest of the book. This question is explained when he talks about who wrote it. The time period and the author go together. The time period that Schniedewind believes that the Bible was written in was the 7th century B.C.E. to the 9th century B.C.E. Schniedewind believes that this is true because of King Hezekiah and then King Josiah and the 12 prophets. The prophets are credited for speaking the word of God not writing it, but they still had a huge part in what was eventually put into the Bible. Some of the prophets even had scribes, such as Jeremiah. Jeremiah's scribe, Baruch, wrote what Jeremiah was told by God. Then Jeremiah went to the temple and read it out loud. When he did this the king tore up the scroll but Jeremiah (literally Baruch) rewrites it, this perhaps marks the transition from oral history to written history. Thanks to Baruch the book of Jeremiah is in existence today. The prophets all had some form of a scribe or someone who was listening to them that would pass along their story until it got written down. Due to these scribes the Bible began to grow and stories were being written down. Schniedewind therefore thinks that the Bible was primarily written during the 8th century B.C.E. because of the prophets and Hezekiah and Josiah. So judging by who wrote the book can determine when the book was written. These two questions relate to and help each other out. They can determine what happens or who wrote the book just by knowing the opposite and Schniedewind picks up on it and does a great job of relating this simple point back to the audience.
The next part of his thesis statement is the final question, "Why was the Bible written?" This question is the most crucial and the most important to this book. Schniedewind does an excellent job of answering this question to its fullest. As a reader wanting to learn more about the Bible and the history this book is an excellent source to learn about the different time periods and different people and the different reasons why it was all put together into the book that we have today. So why was the Bible written? No one in biblical times could read it and scrolls were expensive and had limited circulation. Schniedewind shows that over time scribes began to write for their kings in order to show the kings importance. There were inscriptions on public statues even though the general population could not read it. Written language was a symbol of high class and intelligence. Only the people with power knew how to write or had scribes to write for them. "The purpose of writing was not for literary creativity, but for government administration." (Schniedewind 41) Through the scribes many different things began to be written down. Starting with king's decrees and what their laws were. The king's people could not read it but because they saw the writing it showed them that the king had competence and was in control. After time the oral tradition was starting to become more and more of a written tradition. Going back to the prophets, many of their words that God spoke through them were written down by scribes. The scribes therefore had a major part in writing the Bible. The creation of the alphabet also had a huge impact on the writing of the Bible. Although the alphabet did not directly lead to the education of people it did lead to the biblical history actually being recorded. When the scribes started to record more and more information that was not for government administration the people began to learn and become educated. The people therefore learned how to read and write. The Bible was a story that had been pasted down for many years and told over many generations, therefore, the people, instead of telling the stories, would read them. Scribes during the 8th century B.C.E. were actually the ones responsible for getting the stories down and for writing some of the biblical history. Schniedewind makes the point that during this time period is when the Bible actually started to take shape.
The Assyrian Empire, which was the first empire, helped urbanize the world. Due to the urbanization many people began to write and read a lot more. This also helped spread the Bible. King Hezekiah's royal scribes wrote accurate accounts of the Assyrian attack on Jerusalem. So overall many thing led to the actual writing of the Bible. Mainly scribes were responsible for the beginning stages and the organization of the Bible and then the public, once educated, was able to read it and contribute their believes and their stories. Due to the writing of the Bible millions of people are now able to read it and understand the biblical history. So the Bible was actually written down because over time the alphabet was created and the people learned how to read and write. The stories that are in the Bible were passed down through many generations and when people learned how to read and write they started to convert these stories over into a written language, and therefore, giving us the Bible that we know today.
This book is devoted to answering Schniedewind's three main questions at the beginning of the book. The book has 10 chapters and each goes through and describes a different time period. Each chapter takes place during a certain time in the history of the writing of the Bible. For example chapter 5 "Hezekiah and the Beginning of Biblical Literature." all takes place during the Assyrian rule of the ancient world. Each time period that the Bible was written through had major effects on how it was written. So each chapter deals with writing throughout the history of the Bible. In chapter two Schniedewind discusses the power of writing in the ancient world. He discussed the fact that writing in the ancient world was extremely important. At the beginning when writing was still primitive only kings and their scribes could read and write. Writing was viewed as a gift from the gods. In this chapter Schniedewind talks about the Egyptian influence on the Israelites. Schniedewind also talks about the importance of the written name. He shows examples of how names were "thought to contain something of the very essence of that person." (Schniedewind 29) For further example, Abram's name means "exalted father" but it was changed to Abraham that means "father of multitudes." This is an example of how people of that time viewed the names to actually have meaning on that person's life. He also uses Jacob and Moses as examples. Writing a persons name could actually be thought of as a ritual act. In chapter two Schniedewind explains why writing is such an important tool to have. This chapter very well fits the flow of his book because it shows the reader the importance of writing so that they can see why writing the Bible was such a big and important thing in history. This chapter adds to the rest of the book by showing an overall importance to writing. In chapter three, "Writing and the State" Schniedewind really starts to talk about writing in the ancient world. This is where he begins to talk about the importance of scribes. Royal scribes wrote for their king. "The scribe was among the most necessary figures in ancient Near Eastern governments." (Schniedewind 40) The main purpose of writing was not for actually reading it but instead for a display of royal power. The king had an advantage over the average person because he had a power that they did not, a power that made him more intelligent. In this chapter he takes us through many different time periods and he shows the reader how each empire or kingdom viewed writing as an important tool. This chapter will later relate to chapter six when royal scribes being to start writing important documents and important dates down for their kings. Chapter three is an important aspect to the overall theme of the book. It shows how scribes originally came about and how importantly they were viewed. This all will come back later in the book.
The next chapter, "Writing in Early Israel" (Chapter 4), talks a lot about the history of Israel and how they were a nomadic nation. It discusses Israel's history and their different stages along the way to finding the written language. Schniedewind also mentions the stories that were told and the songs that were sung in order to keep their history alive. This is how the stories survived such a long time because the Israelites did not write them down when the events actually happened. This chapter briefly describes how Israel was urbanized and how the setting was laid for the switch from an oral society to a writing one. Chapter four covers the history of Israel before the 8th century B.C.E. It leads into to chapter five very well because chapter five discusses the Assyrian Empire in the 8th century. Hezekiah is the king of Israel when writing and urbanization really starts to take place. Due to the Assyrian invasion of Israel the city of Jerusalem grows exponentially. Therefore many people moved into the city and they began learning how to read and write. Schniedewind explains how stories started to get written down. This chapter talks about the golden age under Hezekiah. This era promoted the growth of the written language greatly. Before this time no one really needed to be able to write, but now with the huge urbanized city of Jerusalem writing began growing and started to become a necessity of living. Chapter six deals with Josiah and the Text Revolution. During Josiah's reign as king the writing was done more by government officials. In Hezekiah's reign, however, the writing was done mainly by temple scribes. The shift of who was writing was a major aspect of the education and literacy of the Israelites. Once again urbanization is a key factor in this chapter. Schniedewind uses examples that people were becoming literate. He uses the example of a letter written by a solider. The junior officer was more literate than the senior officer expected. This shows that many of the lower classes were learning how to read and write. Due to what was already said in previous chapters the lower classes were able to learn how to read and write due to the urbanization of Jerusalem and the importance of writing on society. Chapter six mainly deals with the same issues that chapter five talked about but takes it a step further. Chapter six goes into the new social location for writing. This deals with primarily with writing becoming less and less a scribal class affair. The non-scribal class was now able to write and have the same privileges as the higher classes. Another example that Schniedewind uses in this chapter is the example of the citizens writing graffiti. This shows that the average class citizens knew how to write and discuss politics. This was an important step for the average public. They were finally becoming literate, something that will last for the rest of time. In chapter seven, Schniedewind looks directly at the Torah. The chapter is called "How the Torah Became a Text." In this chapter once again illustrates how ancient Israel switched from an oral society into a written society. In chapter seven Schniedewind examines the Torah in order to explain how the transition took place. Schniedewind's main point in this chapter is when God gave the Ten Commandments to Moses on Mount Sinai. When Moses receives the Ten Commandments this is the beginning of the Torah and what the Torah is based on. Schniedewind discusses this in full detail because the Israelites will later use this story as one of the first written out stories in history. Chapter eight, "Writing in Exile", deals with yet another time period. This chapter talks about the Babylonian exile, when the Babylonians conquered Judah and sent the Judean people into exile. This ended the Davidic monarchy. Government and religious institutions were changed because of the conquest. Therefore, writing styles changed. Since Judah was split up there were many different educated people from Jerusalem coming out and writing many different things.
By the time that Babylon conquered Judah the biblical literature is basically finished with the end of the royal house. Once the Davidic monarchy was eliminated by the Babylonian conquest the Bible was essentially completed. At the end of this chapter Schniedewind leads into the Persian Empire. In chapter nine, "Scripture in the Shadow of the Temple," deals with the darkest time in biblical literature. This chapter talks about writing in the fifth through the third centuries B.C.E. Schniedewind also mentions the Hebrew language and how it was under siege in an Aramaic world. During this chapter he talks about many books in the Bible that were edited or added during this time period. At the end of this chapter Schniedewind goes over the entire book. He basically sums up the major time periods and how they influenced the Bible being written. And finally in chapter ten (the epilogue) Schniedewind discusses the time period right after the Persians. He mentions writing in early Christianity with Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. He talks about the writing of the New Testament. And finally he talks about how the Bible became a book. The early Christians used and adapted the written scripture. They used this and by teaching and learning from it was passed down from generation to generation.
This book is a very good book. It lets the reader know about biblical history and about the writing during each time period. Schniedewind does an excellent job of portraying his message and making possible for the reader to understand what was happening and why it was. I feel that I benefited from the book. I would say that I agreed with Schniedewind. His points are good and in depth. There are many ideas about how and why and when the Bible was actually written but unfortunately I have not read them, therefore, I don't know what to compare this book to. I agree with Schniedewind because he presents his point very well and backs it up with true information. In Religion class the same things are taught that Schniedewind is writing about in his book. The timelines match up and the same people are in the history. It is amazing to see how certain people can have such an impact on a book that has now been around for thousands of years. I feel that Schniedewind brings a good viewpoint to the table. Although he argues against the belief that the Bible was written primarily in the third century B.C.E. he presents a very good point of why it was actually written when Hezekiah was king. Overall Schniedewind's book, "How the Bible Became a Book," is an excellent source for anyone who wants to learn more about the history of the Bible. Finding out why and how the Bible was written is as much of an important step as reading it. The Bible has thousands of years of history in it and to be able to understand where all of the books came from and why and who wrote them when is amazing. Actually knowing that people in history existed and contributed to writing the greatest book in history helps me believe that it is all real. Schniedewind shows throughout his book how complex the Bible is and how many different stories and people went into the writing of it. The great history of the Bible was summed up greatly by William M. Schniedewind. He does truly tell the reader how the Bible became a book.


Rating:
Summary: Scribes and Scripture
Review: Dr. William Schniedewind has mastered the age old question of who actually wrote the Bible. Not only does he delve the reader into this essential question for readers of the Hebrew Bible everywhere, but he effectively explains the entire Ancient Israelite culture. From the hatred and fear of the power of writing to the questioned authority of the author and Israel's beloved orality, Schniedewind builds case after case of more than sufficient evidence to prove every point. He uses effective persuasion in his writing and also splashes many pages with helpful illustrations and charts that give the reader the most vivid idea of what literacy and life was like in the Ancient Near East. Schniedewind clarifies such questions like whether or not Moses wrote the Torah, and if he didn't, why there is such a mass misconception. This book is a must read for any reader who wants to enhance his or her knowledge of the Old Testament and what really happened during this integral and mysterious time.

Rating:
Summary: A Wonderful Explanation
Review: How the Bible Became a Book by William Schniedewind discusses not only when the bible may have come about, but also the importance of how and why it was written. Schniedewind cites a broad range of evidence to support his theses. He also utilizes a realistic look at the different time periods of ancient Israel to help explain his view. Although Schniedewind postulates that the Bible was written down between 8th to 6th century BCE, his endeavors in writing the book are not based around this concept. He gives insight to the history of writing and the alphabet to demonstrate the evolution of the primarily oral ancient culture, to one that relies on a singular book to relate to God. It is a well written, informative piece of work. Schniedewind's ideas and theories come across clearly and articulately. He does an excellent job of citing relevant evidence that not only proves his own postulates, but also disproves those that he is refuting.
This book is definitely worth a read. Whether you are interested in the history of ancient Israel, writing or different viewpoints of how, when and why the Bible came about, it's all covered.


Rating:
Summary:
Review: How the Bible became a book serves a wealth of knowledge into the time in which the Bible was written. It teaches the cultural norms, societal issues and religious beliefs of Israel before the common era. Schniedewind brings to light many different issues regarding why certain events happened throughout the Israelites history and the effect they have on the literacy of the time. The author also deals with many theses about the textualization of the bible, disproving others and unveiling his throughout the book. The book gives a very thorough insight into the subject and leaves you with a much better understanding and appreciation for the many trials that the text of the Bible has been through.

Rating:
Summary: Is Schniedewind's book worth reading?
Review: I found How the Bible Became a Book an interesting account of the history of writing. He asks a couple of question regarding the Bible: where did the Hebrew Bible come from, where was it written, when was it written, and why was it written?
In each chapter Schniedewind does an excellent job of supporting his point of view. From the information he provides it seems plausible to agree that Ancient Israeli culture was largely an oral society and writing played little to no role. The little role it played was restricted to governmental and royal scribes. Therefore, it is hard to answer the question of who wrote the Bible, considering that authorship was unimportant during this time in history.
The question of why the bible was written is a bit easier. I think that Schniedewind does an excellent job of answering this one. If literacy was an elitist concept, what would be the point of putting the bible into a textualized form? Kings such as Hezekiah and Josiah provoked a cultural revolution, placing writing in a more accessible form. Although it would take centuries for literacy to become commonplace in society, we can observe the slight shifts of writing away from the government and into the arms of the people.
I felt that the author did an exceptional job of demonstrating when biblical literature was written down. Evidence presented in the book suggests that much of the literature was compiled during the time of King Hezekiah in the late eighth century B.C.E. Schniedewind also convinced me that King Jehoaichin and the royal family were supporters of biblical literature, therefore a major portion of biblical literature was written during his family's Babylonian exile. And although, a majority of scholars contend that the Persian period was a time of an explosive writing of biblical literature, from the evidence I encounter, I would have to disagree. In my opinion, it appears that those scholars have incorrectly dated their biblical works for the Persian period lacked the writing of biblical literature.
One problem I found with this book was the way Schniedewind presented the information. I must say that I did have some difficulty following the book. Schniedewind provides his readers with a major amount of the historical information surrounding each time period, but because I was not familiar with many of the names and terminology, I did struggle to understand some parts of the book. I felt that he left some gaps in the historical background information, thus leaving me confused. It was also difficult to follow due to the fact that I am not familiar with all of the books of the Old Testament.
Schniedewind does an excellent job of supporting his opinions. In fact, he had me agreeing on a majority of them, but I think he failed in his attempt to address the opinions of other scholars in depth. In each chapter, the readers are presented with his hypothesis and well as what other scholars contend. He provides us with a large amount of evidence to support his theory, but very little evidence is shown opposing his theory. For example, in the chapter on the Persian period, he claims that little biblical literature was written during this period, although a manifold of scholars disagree. I am actually interested to know why these scholars disagree! But I understand that if he provided evidence for all his counterarguements, the book might go on forever!
William M. Schniedewind paints a detailed portrait of this history of writing in his book How the Bible Became a Book. In discussing the history of writing beginning in the second millennium B.C.E. leading to the beginning of Christianity, Schniedewind answers one of the profound yet difficult questions of all time: How the Bible Became a Book.


Rating:
Summary: Review of Schniedewind's work
Review: Philosophers, archeologist, theologians and the mass population have been deliberating literally hundreds of years on numerous topics surrounding the Old and New Testament of the Bible. A few of these discussions deal with questions like how the Bible became a book, when was the Bible written, and why was it written. These questions are important in understanding the writings of the Bible and who had influence over what was actually written. William M. Schniedewind has discussed his views and findings in his newly released book, How the Bible Became a Book. My goal over the next five pages, single spaced, is to paraphrase Schniedewind's findings and views and conclude with a personal opinion.

From almost a completely pastoral, oral society emerged a text that has been the backbone and authority of many cultures for centuries. How did this oral, and many times illiterate, society develop this sacred text known as the Bible? Much of the population in ancient Israel, before the seventh century B.C.E., could not read or write. So why is it that Schniedewind argues that the Old Testament began forming during the eight century B.C.E.?

While the masses in ancient Israel could not read or write, many of those who lived in the palaces and temples could. This is why Schniedewind argues that, "...one of the most central moments in the history of the written work occurred in ancient Israel when the written work spread from the narrow confines of palace or temple scribes to the broader society." This transition Schniedewind discusses is also referred to as the textualization of ancient Israel.

Schniedewind's book raises the issue that maybe the focus of understanding the text should not be placed on the observation of the writers, but on what the text meant to its readers during the appropriate time period. The focus of who wrote the Bible is troublesome to begin with, because during the Iron Age and later, there was no such thing as authorship. The Hebrew language did not even have a word that translates into "author". Without a definitive answer on who exactly wrote the Bible, assumptions and generalizations are made with sometimes little proof. Schniedewind raises a good question that is, "Even if we could figure out who the authors were, would we be any closer to the meaning of the Bible?" He believes not.

With much of the ancient Israelite people illiterate, and religion being practiced through the tradition of oral practice, why was the Bible written at all? Even the Bible hints that some early text that never even mention being written down, including the first citing of the Ten Commandments. Schniedewind defends that while orality and literacy exist on the same continuum, orality and textuality are in direct conflict when it comes to authority. Contrary to some common beliefs, the Bible was largely written down in the eighth century to the sixth century B.C.E.

The power of writing expands far beyond just literacy. Writing was once considered a gift from the gods, which might explain why some considered textualization the authority and not orality. Schniedewind describes the power and use of writing in ancient Israel as, "...a display of state power and a tool of state administration. Second, writing was a gift of the gods...Writing was also [in theory] something done in heaven..." People also believed writing had supernatural powers and that curses could be brought upon a specific individual or city by simply writing it down and performing a ritual.
Egyptian Execration texts are among the earliest examples of the numinous power of writing. Execration texts were curses directed at people or cities. The power of the curse is ritualized by the writing down of the words or of the name of the cursed person. - Schniedewind
If a society believes in Execration texts and their [supposed] powers, then the art of writing is held to a higher esteem. There are also several accounts in the Bible where written text is given almost God like powers, i.e. the Ark of the Covenant and the two tablets given to Moses on Mount Sinai. "We revere the written word," wrote Schniedewind.

The state [government] during eighth century B.C.E. and later took advantage of their illiterate and fearful society, and written monuments in public to display royal power and authority. Writing was primarily an activity of the state, and thus was used to control the people. Even with so much power and authority given to written words, it wasn't until later, during the invention of the alphabet, that the society transitioned from orality to textualization and became literate.

Before the time of mass literacy in Israel, the "known literature" was that of songs and stories that had been passed down each generation. Schniedewind claims that, "The earliest biblical literature included songs of the people [oral literature]." Schniedewind also gives example of where oral literature, over time, transitions into written literature, through periods of textualization.

Schniedewind observes the relationship and correlation between the old Canaanite scribal system and that of the early Israelites. If there is a correlation, then that might suggests little or no change in the scribal system prior to Israelites entering the Promised Land. Although there was a reform attempt to rid of foreign influences, there is no archaeological proof that the Israelites discarded the previous scribal system, set by the Canaanites.

"The Bible as we know it began to take shape in Jerusalem in the late eighth century B.C.E., in the days of Isaiah, the prophet, and Hezekiah, the king of Judah," wrote Schniedewind. Writing, during the late eighth century B.C.E., became much more centralized and widespread in Judah. This was also when the society was developing both economically and socially. King Hezekiah desired a kingdom that would reflect that of David's and Salomon's. It was during this time that oral traditions were written down and collected by scribes. Previous texts of the palace were used to create historical books that would retell the history of prior kings. An important vehicle for the reform back to the golden age, that of David and Salomon, was the fall of the northern kingdom, which was at heads with the southern kingdom. It was when the northerners fled to Jerusalem that the written texts were altered to portray a more "united" Israel.

As literacy and literature emerge in Israel, a textual revolution occurs. This occurrence happens during the reign of King Josiah; the late seventh century B.C.E.. Schniedewind remarks that, "This was one of the most profound cultural revolutions in human history: the assertion of the orthodoxy of texts." No longer were all texts written by the palace or priest, but by soldiers and people of trade. Once Josiah was chosen ruler over Israel, he set new reforms that focused on cultural influence. With the new found expression of the people, especially the rural elders, they began to write text that would create written tension between those urban and those rural. "Power had apparently shifted from the urban elites with ties to the northern Israel back to the rural tribal leaders," wrote Schniedewind. This was not to last long though, as the demise of the independent literary neared.

Schniedewind, as opposed to many scholars, believes the question at hand is not who wrote the Torah, but how does the Torah relate to its own textuality; basically that of Moses. Schniedewind's "approach to the formation of biblical literature began with an assessment of the practical aspects of writing and the social contexts of writing as they developed in ancient Israel and early Judaism."

The Hebrew word torah means teaching or instruction. This implies that the torah is an "oral collection of tradition" that questions where power should be placed; either oral or written. "The word torah is part of a frequently used triplet: commandments, laws, and teachings...Moreover, torah was not necessarily God's teaching." Schniedewind believes that before one asks the question, how the torah became a book, it is wise to understand the use of the word torah.

Now the independent literary did not last very long in Israel. The Babylonians conducted three military campaigns in 597, 586, and in 581 B.C.E.. These campaigns crippled Israel and demolished the flourishing of literacy. The Babylonians basically devoted to destruction. "Because of all this the exilic period was a period of retrenchment for biblical literature," Schniedewind claims. Almost as if going back in time, the previous literature and authority of writing returned to the palace. Oral literacy returned to the people of the land. The permanence of the royal family of Jehoiachin, also part of the Davidic line, persisted even after the end of the sixth century B.C.E.. Zerubbabel of the family of Jehoiachin, in the late sixth century B.C.E., became leader of those who returned to Jerusalem, even though it was destroyed by war. Zerubbabel rebuilt the Temple and then suddenly disappeared along with the rest of the royal family. Little to no new writings were written during the exile period. Scribes just completed and revised previous biblical literature.

After the Babylonian exile came the Persian period, which was considered one of the darkest periods for the Israelites.
Rather than a golden age, however, the archaeological record points to the economic deprivation of Jerusalem and its surroundings. Rather than the great flourishing of biblical literature, this would be a time of retrenchment. - Schniedewind
Schniedewind argues that the role of the priest and scribes was not to continue the writings of the gathered literature, but to preserve it. Only two books are thought to have been written during this time period; Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah. The priest and scribes occupied their time by adding editorial framework to pieces of the biblical literature; i.e. the prologue and conclusion found in the Book of Job. The once great city Jerusalem was in shambles, and the Hebrew language was declining, while Aramaic languages began to replace the language of the Jews.

The sacred texts were guarded by a priest named Ezra and the priestly leadership of the time. "Ezra was both a secular and religious leader who was trained in the courts of the Persian kings and served in Jerusalem with their support." Ezra and his priestly leadership's ideals held strong all the way to 70 C.E.. As time passed, more and more priest began to reject oral tradition and its legitimacy, which in turn put the authority in the sacred texts.

After the Persian period came a time of relative prosperity and the flourish of Jewish literature. This was during the third century B.C.E., and during the reign of an Egyptian Hellenistic ruler. Though the times were prosperous for Israel, the construction of more biblical literature was basically over. Now all that was left was copying, translating, and dispersing.

How the Bible Became a Book, by William M. Schniedewind, is an extensive compilation of the findings of Schniedewind and his citied sources. Schniedewind has obviously done his homework over the years, and comes off as a very bright scholar. What I enjoyed most about Schniedewind's writing is that he did not spend much time on topics that are consistently argued by the scholars of today. He understands that it would be pointless and decides to take a more realistic approach. The read was enjoyable at times, and I do feel much more knowledgeable when it comes to the textualization of the Bible.

This is the first book I have read on the topic, how the bible became a book. Because of this, it is hard for me to judge and compare Schniedewind's theories, even though he is very convincing. From what I've learned in school and religion class, Schniedewind's findings at least appear to fit my prior teachings. It would be interesting to read another scholars view on this topic and see how it compares to Schniedewind's ideas. For now, I will have to take Schniedewind's findings as a plausibly theory with some evidential support.


Rating:
Summary: Interesting Insight
Review: The content of the book How the Bible Became a Book can be a little overbearing to a reader of little background in the subject matter; however, Dr. William Schniedewind takes the reader step by step through the history of ancient Israel and the introduction of writing into its society. He presents an in-depth explanation for all of the information that is introduced to the reader; this is especially helpful for his audience, because many of the historical facts are not common knowledge to the general individual. Within the book, Schniedewind often presents the more commonly held belief regarding the subject matter, and if his evidence proves these certain beliefs wrong, he challenges them with a writing style that is genuinely persuasive and credible.
Schniedewind uses new archeological findings to give the reading audience a perspective into the past of Israel. These relatively modern finds provide the reader with a look at this mysterious time and allow for a certain revelation in regard to how and when the Bible was textualized. Although Schniedewind's writing in itself is already very persuasive, Schniedewind does not complacently allow his writing to stand solo. Schniedewind also incorporates images of the archeological findings to which he often refers. These pictures give the readers a visual image as to the inscriptions that Schniedewind writes about, and they are very helpful to providing the reader with a more solid understanding of the material covered in the book.
Although How the Bible Became a Book touches on so many issues of Ancient Israel and literacy, the real rave surrounding Dr. William Schneidewind's book concerns his basic claim as to when the Bible was written. Schneidewind's claim refutes the widely accepted belief that the Bible was essentially written and edited in the Persian and Hellenistic periods, which took place during the fifth through second centuries B.C.E. Contrary to this popular belief, Schniedewind strongly suggests that the actual writing of the Bible took place in the earlier era of the late-Iron age, which took place a few hundred years earlier in the eighth through sixth centuries. Schniedewind uses this claim as the basis of his work, and effectively supports his claim through the knowledge and understanding of historical settings along with the new archeological findings. Rather than promoting the idea that the rise of literacy began during the fifth century B.C.E. in Greece, he makes and proves his point with the help and support of undeniable and substantial evidence. Overall, it is definitely an interesting and insightful read.